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A new energy source on the horizon
BlackLight Power technology promises revolutionary advances in energy generation in the twenty first century
By Shelby T. Brewer
A fundamental new energy source (the BlackLightSM TM process) has been derived theoretically and confirmed empirically by BlackLight Power Inc. (BLP). The process is not nuclear -- neither fission nor fusion, nor is it chemical in the usual sense, in that there is no molecular alteration. The BlackLightSM TM process, developed by Randell L. Mills, BlackLight's President, is a catalytically induced transformation of hydrogen energy states to levels below the "ground state" (n=1), as defined by generally accepted atomic theory. Recent experimental data indicate energy releases beyond one thousand times the combustion energy of hydrogen. Since the combustion energy is the energy required to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, the hydrogen fuel can be produced from water using a fraction of a percent of the released energy. Thus the BlackLightSM TM process gives rise to a prospective inexhaustible, economical, environmentally friendly energy source.
The energy generation potential of this discovery, if reduced to practical engineering application and deployed commercially and routinely, can revolutionize energy production globally -- in central station and distributed power generation, as well as transportation sectors. BlackLight Power Inc., the owner of intellectual property rights to the process, is proceeding to complete the scientific underpinnings and build capability to assist licensees in application engineering. Unlike the "cold fusion" initiative in the early 1990s, which has been more or less written off, the BLP endeavor rests on carefully articulated theory, consistency with empirical and reproducible evidence, and a development program directed toward achieving a self-sustained energy cell as a forerunner of commercial applications.
Theory
Since the pioneering work of Niels Bohr in 1913, physics models of the hydrogen atom have prescribed that the total (sum of kinetic plus potential) energy levels of the orbital electron are restricted to the quantum states given by
where n is an integer, n = 1, 2, 3,…, and where aH is the Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom, e is the charge of the electron, and e 0 is the vacuum permittivity. The energy state corresponding to n=1 is said to be the "ground" state, with energy states below this level not considered possible.
Dr. Randell L. Mills of Blacklight Power, Inc. has developed an innovative mathematical formulation using fundamental laws of physics to arrive at a closed form solution for the hydrogen atom along with a wide range of other physical phenomena. In a major departure from generally accepted theory, the Mills formulation predicts allowed stable energy states (n = 1, 1/2, 1/3, ...), as well as the excited integer states (n = 2, 3, 4, …). In the Mills lexicon, a hydrogen atom in a fractional quantum state is called a "hydrino" (the designation for a hydrino of radius aH/p, where aH is the radius of the hydrogen atom for n=1 and p is an integer, is H[aH/p]), and a molecule consisting of two hydrogen atoms in the same fractional state is called a "dihydrino molecule". Energy transitions from n=1 to a hydrino state, or from a hydrino state to a lower hydrino state, are not spontaneously radiative, and must be catalyzed - the BlackLightSM TM process.
Hydrinos are formed by reacting a hydrogen source with a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of about m* 27.2 eV, where m is an integer. This catalysis releases energy with a commensurate decrease in size of the hydrogen atom to rn=naH=aH/p. For example, the catalysis of H[aH] to H[aH/2] releases 40.8 eV, and the hydrogen radius decreases from aH to aH/2. One such catalytic system involves potassium. The second ionization energy of potassium is 31.63 eV; and K+ releases 4.34 eV when it is reduced to K. The combination of reactions K+ to K2+ and K+ to K, then, has the net enthalpy of reaction of 27.28 eV; m=1. The reaction is expressed by:
Where, the overall reaction is
Note that the energy given off during catalysis is much greater than the energy lost to the catalyst. And, the energy released is large as compared to conventional chemical reactions. For example, when hydrogen and oxygen gases undergo combustion to form water
the known enthalpy of formation of water is D Hf = -286 kJ/mole or 1.48 eV per hydrogen atom. By contrast, each (n = 1) hydrogen atom undergoing catalysis to n = _ releases a net energy of 40.8 eV. Moreover, further catalytic transitions may occur: n = 1/2® 1/3, 1/3® 1/4, 1/4® 1/5, and so on. Once catalysis begins, hydrinos autocatalyze further in a process called disproportionation. This mechanism is similar to that of an inorganic ion catalysis. But, hydrino catalysis has a higher reaction rate than that of the inorganic ion catalyst due to the better match of the enthalpy to m* 27.2 eV.
Thus two mechanisms have been identified for inducing the collapse of hydrogen to lower fractional energy states with coincident release of large quantities of energy:
The total energy release in going from the "ground state" (n=1) to a given fractional state (nf) is given by [(1/nf)2 - 1] x 13.6 eV. For example, the energy released in collapsing a hydrogen atom from n=1 to n=1/10 is 1,346 eV, or 910 times the combustion energy of 1.48 eV. The relationship between final fractional energy state and energy release relative to the n=1 state is shown in Figure 1.
Empirical Confirmation
Theory is relevant only insofar as it can explain observed phenomena and predict new phenomena quantitatively. Theory is useful to the extent that it can lead to practical engineering. Over the past decade a wealth of data supporting Mills' theory, and the existence of fractional energy states of hydrogen has been developed. These data fall into three categories: (1) astrophysical indications of the process occurring in space, (2) laboratory indications of properties of matter, and (3) laboratory indications of the production of energy.
Astrophysical data were addressed in response to challenges by reviewers of Mills' theory; i.e., if the theory were true, some manifestations of it should be observable in natural phenomena. Since the BLP Process requires atomic hydrogen, it would not be expected to occur naturally on earth because terrestrial hydrogen exists almost exclusively in molecular form, either as a hydrogen molecule or bound with other elements in more complex molecules. However, hydrogen is ubiquitous in space, making up approximately 90% of the observable mass of the universe. Also, the range of existing temperatures and pressures encompass conditions which could be supportive of the BLP Process. Ultraviolet spectroscopy data from the interstellar medium and from the sun show spectral lines consistent with the predicted emission lines of the BLP Process. Analysis of these and other astrophysical data lead to the conclusion that perhaps 40% of the energy coming from the sun is produced by the BLP process. In addition, the "dark matter" needed by astrophysicists to fit their models to observed behavior, at least an order of magnitude greater in mass than observable matter, is projected to be hydrino. A substantial body of data indicates that the BLP process does occur in nature, and that Mills' theory provides a basis for explaining numerous currently unresolved astrophysical observations.
Laboratory indications of properties of matter consistent with the expected characteristics of low energy hydrogen have been documented by BLP and collaborating organizations, . Mass spectroscopy data from BLP cell effluent gas are consistent with a mass 2 molecule with more tightly bound electrons than conventional molecular hydrogen. X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy examination of BLP cell electrode surfaces have given indications of electron binding energies consistent with the projections of Mills' theory for the n = 1/2, 1/3, and 1/4 quantum states. Gas Chromatography testing of gas from BLP devices has shown indications of an unidentified material similar to hydrogen with a shorter retention time. Data from multiple material characterization tests support the existence of a form of matter consistent with the anticipated characteristics of low energy hydrogen.
Laboratory indications of the production of energy have been developed by BLP and multiple independent organizations over a wide range of device types2, 3, , , . Early data were generated exclusively in electrolytic cells using a potassium carbonate/water electrolyte and producing energy in multiples of input energy as high as a factor of ten for periods as long as 15 months. Another device demonstrating excess energy in a potassium carbonate solution without electrolysis was developed by a collaborating organization. BLP has subsequently demonstrated excess energy in an evolving array of devices directed toward higher temperature service, culminating in the gas vapor cells as discussed in the following section. Energy production has been demonstrated by data spanning a variety of devices and developed by multiple organizations, all with the common thread of atomic hydrogen and a catalyst (typically a potassium compound) present in the device.
Energy Cells
Device development aimed at improving energy cell performance and commercialization potential by increasing operating temperature and power density has culminated in the BLP vapor phase cell concept. The earliest vapor phase device consisted of a small (~20 cc) flanged steel vessel containing a wire filament electrically heated to high temperature to serve as a hydrogen dissociation surface and vaporize a potassium catalyst compound placed in a crucible at the bottom of the cell. The vessel was placed in a high accuracy Calvet calorimeter to measure heat flow as a means of determining energy release. Several series of calibration, control and active tests have yielded high confidence data on the production of energy in steady state and provided insights regarding dynamic characteristics and the effect of parameter variations (e.g., energy production as a function of atomic hydrogen pressure).
As currently envisioned, energy cells will be fueled by hydrogen gas, thus the fuel would be produced externally, typically from water using electrolysis or a steam/hydrocarbon reforming process. An energy cell will perform the following sequential process functions:
Energy is transferred to the catalysts [primary or self] in the coupled reaction as well as now spontaneous radiation to the next stable state hydrino, then radiated to the cell walls for transfer to a working fluid outside the cell. The overall reaction is strongly exothermic, with the energy inputs (1.48 ev/atom to form hydrogen from water plus 2.38 ev/atom for dissociation) much less than the energy outputs (test data indicate >1,000 eV/atom from items 2, 3 and 4 above). The energy cell is the heart of the concept and a focus of ongoing development.
The vapor phase cell conditions for efficient operation are determined by the need for atomic hydrogen in combination with vaporized catalyst compound. Theoretical projections and experimental data indicate optimal cell pressure is far below atmospheric pressure to limit recombination to molecular hydrogen, with optimum temperatures well in excess of 1000°C to support effective hydrogen dissociation by the cell internal structure. Theoretical power density projections in the range of 1,000 kW/liter exceed the power densities in nuclear plant cores and gas turbine combustors. Experimental power densities are uncertain due to limitations of the small-scale cells operated to date (estimates range from 0.4 to 80 kW/liter in different devices). However, a large-scale cell planned for operation by the end of 1997 is expected to provide more definitive power density data and have the capability for stand-alone operation producing thermal energy at the multi-kilowatt level. Information currently available provides confidence that conditions supportive of economically competitive applications will be achieved.
Applications and Markets
The power generation concepts developed to date for application of the BLP process are based upon modification of existing equipment - using the energy cells to heat water for Rankine cycle (steam turbine) machines and to heat air or other working fluid for Brayton cycle (gas turbine) machines. A total of ten concepts have been identified for central station applications - five steam boiler/turbine and five gas turbine configurations. A radiant recirculating saturated steam boiler concept with a refractory metal energy cell panel operating at the elevated temperatures that may be optimum for the BLP process is shown in Figure 2a. Other steam boiler/turbine variants identified include once-through boilers, convective energy cell heat exchangers, and intermediate loop systems. A gas turbine concept using a convective energy cell heat exchanger replacing the combustor is shown in Figure 2b. Other gas turbine variants identified include radiant heat exchangers, closed cycle systems, and intermediate heat transport loop systems. These central station application concepts are intended to serve as a basis for early discussions with manufacturers and to provide feedback to the ongoing BLP energy cell development effort.
The capital cost of central station plants powered by the BlackLightSM TM process is anticipated to be comparable to or less than existing thermal plant options for the following reasons:
Since the fuel for the BlackLightSM TM process is produced from water using orders of magnitude lower quantities than fuel for oil, gas or coal plants, fuel costs will be negligible. The capitalized fuel savings were determined assuming a 70% capacity factor, 20 year economic life, 20%/yr discount rate and 40% thermal efficiency. The results range from $260/kWe at a fuel cost of $1/MMBtu (low end steam coal cost) to $780/kWe at a fuel cost of $3/MMBtu (high end large user natural gas cost). This represents a very large contingency on capital cost for the BlackLightSM TM process equipment, and provides high confidence that economic superiority relative to existing plants will be achieved.
Since emissions from hydrogen production and the BLP Process will consist primarily of oxygen and an inert gas similar to helium, the technology is anticipated to exhibit clear environmental superiority over existing energy options. Additional concepts have been developed for incorporation into the emerging high speed microturbine machines for distributed generation and motive power applications. Based on the concepts assessed to date, the BLP Process is anticipated to have broad application for energy production in all major markets on a global basis.
Commercialization
The science and its empirical confirmation have been accomplished to the satisfaction of significant elements of the investment and energy communities. Consideration, let alone acceptance, by the scientific community is halting at best, consistent with the reaction to revolutionary advances throughout history. Following scaleup to a self-sustaining cell, currently in progress, the next major hurdles are in engineering -- the demonstration of a modular cell applicable to energy generation on an economic scale, and the design and engineering of an energy conversion system. Practical, conventional engineering challenges remain - increasing cell power density, control of the catalytic reaction, transport of the energy released to a working fluid, detailed design articulation of the cell and heat transport systems, etc.
More crucial than the engineering hurdles, is the route to commercialization. The commercialization strategy can be stated simply: leverage the concept into the marketplace through license agreements with power equipment manufacturers [OEMs] and power producers. Black Light Power is a small technology company with no current aspirations to become a major OEM or energy producer. With fundamental technology license agreements, OEMs will develop specific application technologies and equipment in response to market factors. Process licenses with energy producers will engender a revenue stream for BLP as a fraction of the avoided cost of energy generation. The 1992 Energy Policy Act and the 1996 FERC Open Access Rule, which spawn more competitive forces in the utility marketplace, are positive forces advancing BLPs commercialization strategy. Parallel advances in enabling technologies including high temperature materials, manufacturing, power electronics, computers and data communications are creating the environment needed to support the rapid development and commercialization of the BLP process.
References:
1. Mills, R. L., "The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics", 1996 Edition, Library of Congress 96-70686. (available at http://www.blacklightpower.com/book.html)
2. Mills, R. L., Good, W. R., Shaubach, R. M., "Dihydrino Molecule Identification", Fusion Technology, Vol. 25, January, 1994.
3. Mills, R. L., Good, W. R., "Fractional Quantum Energy Levels of Hydrogen", Fusion Technology, Vol. 28, November, 1995.
4. Noninski, V. C., "Excess Heat During the Electrolysis of a Light Water Solution of K2CO3 With a Nickel Cathode", Fusion Technology, Vol. 21, March, 1992.
5. Niedra, J. M., Myers, I. T., Fralick, G. C., Baldwin, R. S., "Replication of the Apparent Excess Heat Effect in a Light Water - Potassium Carbonate - Nickel Electrolytic Cell", NASA Technical Memorandum 107167, February, 1996.
6. Mills, R. L., Kneizys, S. P., "Excess Heat Production by the Electrolysis of an Aqueous Potassium Carbonate Electrolyte and the Implications for Cold Fusion", Fusion Technology, Vol 20, August, 1991.
7. Gernert, N. J., and Shaubach, R. M., Thermacore, Inc. "Nascent Hydrogen: An Energy Source", SBIR Contract No. F33615-93-C-2326, Report No. 11-1124, U.S. Air Force Material Command, Wright-Patterson AFB, March, 1994.
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